Theory of Constraints Essay Example for Free

scheme of Constraints EssayExecutive summary Customers nowadays demand better services and products in equipment casualty of delivery and issue. consequentlyce to satisfy these customer needs and expectations companies must enact alternates in their wait ones.Competition is so intense that if a company does not improve its processes by means of castrate, then competitors give drive you out of business. Customers, employees, sh arholders and other stakeholders in a company continu tout ensembley demand improved products, services and emolumentability. each these demands calls for lower cost of production and hence the management is at pains to get to this. It is critical that a company initiates a process of on-going improvement, which focuses on indwelling process changes instead of the company undergoing reactionary changes precipitated by external changes. To achieve this change through a process of on-going improvement, the company should question its processe s and this involves starting by asking the right questions to identify critical atomic number 18as that need improvement. According to the Goldratt Institute some of the pertinent questions than needs to be asked include the followingWhat to changeTo what to changeHow to make up the changeThese questions must be answered effectively and in a shorter duration of time in order to achieve the process of on-going improvement (Goldratt and cyclooxygenase 1994)The purpose of this research is to explore the TOC conjecture and how it grass be used in various functions and day to day routines in physical compositions.Definition Theory of backwardnesss is a management philosophy developed in the 1984 and popularized by Dr. Eliyahu Goldratt. It involves the focus on resources and the designation of the controls.The resources ar then channeled to the simplenesss that affect the companys so-and-so line. TOC starts by identifying the stock causes of a unobtrusiveness or problem, d eveloping understandable chart and formulating tints that solve the root causes of the problem and constraints (Goldratt et al 2000)It is basically identifying a goal and formulating ways of achieving that goal on a consistent basis. TOC is divided into twoFive management steps sp ar thinking processesHow it worksSpecial thinking processes The pertinent questions asked what to change, to what to change, how to cause change provides a framework and thinking process, which is an integral part of TOC process as a intact. Solutions to problems are formulated through the adoption of strategies developed on logic of cause-and-affect. The whole concept of cause-and-effect analyzes a problem from the signs to coming up with an action plan (Scheinkopf 1999)TOC is applied in organizations to solve problems. It is aptly described using the following questions.What to change Core negate is a problem that is un barable, unresolved problem that hinders the organization from achieving its de sired goals. This conflict can be identified through observed signs and cause-and-effect methods.Due to the nature of the core conflict causing undesired and damaging effects, organizations are forced to formulate policies that willing remedy these undesired and damaging effects caused by the core conflict.The first process is the identification of the core conflict using the three-cloud process. The core conflict to be identified is determined whether it is one that is causing all the undesirable effects.The second process of TOC in answering the what to change question is the developing of the current reality tree which justifies the core conflict identified in process 1 above. Current reality tree explaining the cause and effects patterns and also recognizes the factors that aid the cosmos of undesirable effects.To what to change In answering this question, dissolving agent to the core conflict is developed. Questioning all the dianoetic assumptions underlying the existence of the core conflicts does this. It is paramount that the origin developed should treat completely all the causes and a whole range of other aspects of the undesirable effects. The solution developed is basically a dodge that will include improvements. These improvements ensure that the core conflict does not recur again. The solution developed take into consideration the anticipated undesirable effects and on that pointfore deters their occurrence.The trio step of the TOC process under to what to change question is the identification of the assumptions behind the core conflict and trying to eliminate them. This is done by the critical valuation and questioning of these assumptions.The fourth step is the construction of a upcoming reality tree that is able to formulate and develop a solution (strategy) to the core conflict and the undesirable effects. The undesirable effects should be desirable effects after the adoption of the strategy which should be in line with the overall strategic objectives of the system. The solution must also prevent any further occurrence of undesirable effects and suggest the improvements in terms of policies, procedures or benchmarks. It is also necessary that the strategy support the current TOC applications used to ensure the effectiveness of the new strategy in solving the core conflict (Schragenheim 1999)How to cause change Since the whole concept of TOC is about on-going improvements which as seen primitively, is basically change, then the organization should develop ways of implementing the changes bearing in mind the various organization cultures.The idea of planning for the changes is to quash resistance because without the full cooperation of stakeholders in an organization, even the best of the strategies is doomed to fail. How to cause change question break aways to the fifth and sixth steps of a TOC process. The fifth step involves the development of a tactical objectives map. This is usually a road map that identifies the various steps that the organization undergoes from the current state to the future state. In the future state, the strategy formulated to cope with the core conflict and undesirable effects, is fully actualized and whence the organization is on course to achieve its goals.The process of developing the tactical objectives map should clearly explain the functions of each sub system within a certain specified duration. A prerequisite tree is used to achieve the objective (Schragenheim 1999)The sixth and final step of the TOC process is the formulation of ways in which all the proposed actions will work together in order to stint the future state. The proposed actions relationship will be explained using transition trees. The Five Focusing steps of TOC In any extensive system in an organization, there are factors that negate the attainment of the set goals. These factors are usually problematic and prevent the system from achieving the set goals. These factors are wha t are called constraints. TOC establishes that in any system, there exist constrains that affect the attainment of the objectives in a system. Effective, earlier identification and solving of these constraints leads to better formulation of solutions which will improve the system in terms of future strategic improvements. TOC works on the premise that in an organization or system, there are strong and weak points. It further explains that focusing on the strong points of system or organization is an act in futility because the whole system will still be negated by the one weak point. Therefore it is important that organizations concentrate in strengthening or eliminating that weak point in order to improve the whole system. The five focusing steps of TOC explain the attainment of on-going improvement through the analysis of the constraints in a continuous process.The five steps areConstraints identificationDecide how to exploit the constraint in the best waySubordinate everything e lse to above decisionsElevate the system constraintsAvoiding inertia being a constraint and if constrain is broken in step 4 go back to step 1Constraint identificationA problem cannot be fixed if it has not been identified. The same case applies to a constraint. The organization needs to identify the constraints that hinder the accomplishment of the set goals.The undesired effects are then assessed to establish whether they are from one constraint.All the above identification and analysis of the constraint helps the organization to formulate strategies that are used to mitigate the undesirable effects consulting from the constraint.Exploitation of the constraintConstraints are the cause of lack of the accomplishment of the system goals. Therefore it is necessary that an organization uses the identified constraints and turning them to desirable effects which then aids in the achievement of the system or organisational goals. The organization should ensure that it makes most of the opportunities resulting from the identified constraint.Subordinating everything else to decisions aboveAny policies or requirements of a non-constraint that are outside the control of the constraint should be subordinated so avoid limiting the constraint. The system should also not expect the constraint to produce more(prenominal) than its capability because it might lead to more branches of constraints like increase lead times, inventory pile up and clash of decisions that may confuse the whole system. The constraint subordination leads to the identification of the opportunities that be utilized in the achievement of system and organizational goals.Elevate the system constraint Excess and unutilized opportunities can only be realized after the isolation and analysis of the constraint through management. Isolation of the constraint may also indicate that extra opportunities in terms of e.g. capacity may be needed. Hence the acquisition or communicate of workload to other resourc es may be initiated (McMullen 1998) It is important that before an acquisition of excess resource capacity is undertaken all possible options that lead to goal achievement are explored and therefrom save on the creation of unnecessary extra capacity which can itself become a constraint hence creating branches of constraints.If in former steps constraints are broken go back to step 1During the exploitation subordination or elevation of the constraint, it might be eliminated. The elimination of constraint does not mean that there will be no further constraint. Other constraints will be appear and therefore the need to revisit the whole process by going back to step 1 An example of how solving one constraint lends to another is when the constraint is lack of capacity. Acquiring more capacity thereby lending more rooms for production may eliminate lack of capacity. However, this may lead to overproduction so that the new constraint is the lack of market (McMullen 1998) Therefore TOC involves the analysis of systems and processes in a continuous manner hence the term on-going improvement.Application of Theory of ConstraintsTheory of constraints principles has been applied in a wide variety of fields ranging from business, government to non-government organizations. Utilization of TOC processes creates huge savings in costs and increase in profitability. Basically it can lead to faster realization of system goals, which is the desire of any organization. Some of the areas that TOC concept can be applied include the followingManufacturing operationsLogistic and leave twineFinance and accountancy take in managementMarketing and salesSynchronous Flow manufacturing (SFM)In a manufacturing process, the manufactorys resources in terms of capacity is hampered by its constraints operation, the capacity constraining resource (CCR) The constraint leads to inefficiencies, which may include loss of time due to e.g. idle time. The loss of this time is irrecoverable. In a manufacturing process, the theory of constraints measures the performance based on the amount of washed-up goods produced, levels of inventories and operating(a) expenditures. The number of units of finished goods produced should be more while the inventory levels and operating expenses amount should be lower (Levinson 2002). In a synchronous flow manufacturing, the production information is between CCR and production starts. The CCR ensures production in form of production starts. A deficit at the CCR leads to lose of time, which cannot be recovered. The Drum-Buffer-Rope production control is achieved in a SFM in the following wayThe constraint operation controls the factorys production speed by hindering the overall rate of production. This is same as beating the drum of the speed of production. The constraint is then committed with the production outputs by a lasso in order to achieve the level of production speed dictated by the CCR. It is also necessary that a buffer of inv entory is maintained at the or just before the constraint to avoid stoppages in pre constraint production stages. The whole process and so results in a Drum-Buffer-Rope production (Levinson 2002).Logistics TOC application in logistics involves the analysis of drum-buffer-rope scheduling, buffer management and tub.Drum-Buffer-Rope It is used to plan the flow of materials in a TOC process. As explained earlier in the SFM, the drum is the constraint and is responsible for determining the speed of the whole process. Buffer is the resource that sustains the end product. Buffer stock avoids breaks in the process therefore ensuring the optimization of the end product.The rope is a plan for introducing inputs to the production floor. It is basically a control that ensures that no more than the required resources are released into the production floor. The rope also ensures that the constraint is subordinated by the non-capacity constraints (Dettmer 1998)Buffer Management It helps in the m anagement of the production schedule in the production floor. The buffers can be at the constraint, fiction or shipping. Buffer management ensures that there is no idle capacity, which can lead to the non-achievement of the end product or customer deadline.VAT Analysis VAT analysis establishes the general flow of the production process from the beginning to the end i.e. the flow of inputs up to the end product. VAT analysis assumes that the whole production process in terms of products, raw materials and processes are intertwined. VAT analysis, therefore, establishes that the interactions result into three production structures the V logical, A logical and T logical structures. Logical structures are the expected patterns and processes hat a product must undergo to its completion (Dettmer 1998) The V logical structure starts the production process with one or a few inputs, which then result into many products as it flows through the logical structures. The end result of this produc tion process is many end products.The A logical structure starts with many inputs which then converge as the production process progress and consequently result into a single or few finished products. The T logical structure results into same end products produced from the same process and sub processes. The raw materials pass through a number of same processes, which then provide inputs to the several sub processes that result into similar end products.In VAT analysis, the system control points, which can be gating operations, divergent points, constraints and delivery points are identified and managed once the production flow is determined. These control points are then analyzed to establish whether buffers can be used to maximize the production and avoid stoppages (Dettmer 1998) The control points to be adopted in the management of the production process depend on the shape of the logical structure.A V structure utilizes the constraint, gating operation and divergent points. Buff ers are used to ensure uninterrupted flow to the constraint with gating operation controlling the resource availability. Divergent point uses the delivery schedule thus avoiding wrong material allocation. A T structure uses constraint and gating operation with the output of the gating being pegged on the constraint. The constraint is managed using the five steps focusing process.In the A logical structure, the constraints, gating operation, divergent and convergent points are analyzed.Finance and Accounting In a Finance department of a company, there are two types of chronicle statements that are made the Financial accounting (for shareholders, government and other external stakeholders) and Management accounting (for management).Under the management accounting, the following accounting techniques are usedAbsorption costing focuses on costVariable costing contributionThroughput accounting is arrived at if the concepts of absorption and variable costing are applied to management a ccounting. Throughput accounting is basically cash based non allocation method which is slightly different from full absorption costing in the smack that throughput accounting expenses manufacturing overhead costs in the period the product is produced while full absorption costing allocates the costs to products until sold (Youngman 2008).The measures of throughput, inventory and operating expense can be used together with the analysis of constraints to maximize profitability in a business.Decisions made are based on the knowledge of constraints within the system and where it will occur in the future. These constrains can be external or internal.Internal constraints calls for the calculation of the through put generated per unit item of the constraint while external constraints treats any through put above total variable costs or positive contribution to the system (Youngman 2008).In throughput accounting, a change of one critical aspect calls for the complete evaluation of the who le system. It is basically the effects of decision but not the product that is considered.Despite of all the benefits of throughput accounting over marginal and absorption costing, it has been found that it is not perfect. It does not allocate fixed costs. This thus has lead to the development of Constraints Accounting concept.Constraints accounting, introduces the effects of constraints to profit and loss statement thus subordinating management accounting to the set goals of the firm. Constraints are broken as operating providing ways of achieving goal congruence in both short term and long term results (Caspari and Caspari 2004)Project ManagementAll types of projects in different fields have two common problems that they are uncertain and competing resources, deadlines and project details. These problems therefore make project management an uphill task. TOC tries to address the problems associated with projects by answering the three pertinent questions ofWhat to changeTo what to changeHow to cause the changeIn answering the What to change question, the organization must identify and effectively solve the cause of all the problems associated with project management. (Jacob and Mc Cleland 2001)Multiple projects may pose serious problems resulting from wrong decisions on project start times. Wrong start times may affect the resource committed to existing projects thus delaying their finish times. Single projects problems may originate form wrong assumptions made during the planning and scheduling stages (Schragenheim 1999)Answering the to what to change question should adequately tackle the root causes of problems associated with project management. This is done through planning, effective scheduling, introduction of work that creates extra capacity, project control and work actions that facilitate good project performance (Newbold 1998)Project planning involves all stakeholders and basically identifies constraints thereby avoiding reworks halfway through the projects. Important tasks, paths and resource needs are establishedProject scheduling considers the critical chain by evaluating task, resources and iteration dependencies.Introduction of work should not exceed the existing capacity so as to avoid creating further constraints.Buffer management helps in the control of the project by identifying areas that need buffer stock thus ensuring uninterrupted flow of work.TOC project management adopts delay runner work ethics, which enables the workers to this instant start working on the assigned tasks, and provide notification of completed works (Jacob and Mc Cleland 2001)The last question of the project management is the How to cause the change. Change should be implemented at a pace that allows for the identification of necessary changes while at the same time ensuring project progress.Conclusion It is sheer from the discussions above that TOC is an important concept, which revolutionizes business processes hence leading to the attainme nt of the set goals of organizations. The adoption of TOC concept in the various organizational functions in many industries underscores its importance.ReferencesGoldratt, E. M., and cyclooxygenase J., (1994). The Goal A process of continuous improvement, 2nd Revised Edition. The North River Press.Goldratt, E. M., Schragenheim, E., and Ptak, C., (2000) Necessary but not sufficient. The North River Press.Caspari, J. A., and Caspari, P., (2004) Management Dynamics merging constraints accounting to drive improvement. John Wiley Sons Inc.Dettmer, H. W., (1998) Breaking the constraints to world class performance. ASQ Quality Press.Scheinkopf, L., (1999) Thinking for a change putting the TOC thinking processes to use. St Lucie Press/APICS series on constraint management.Schragenheim, E., (1999) Management dilemmas The Theory of Constraints approach to problem identification and solutions. St. Lucie Press.Newbold, R. C., (1998) Project management in the fast lane applying the theory of c onstraints. St. Lucie Press, 284 pp.McMullen, T. B. C., (1998) Introduction to the Theory of Constraints (TOC) management system. St. Lucie Press.Jacob, D., B and Mc Cleland, W., T (2001). The Theory of Constraints Project Management. The Goldratt Institute. Retrieved on 6/3/2008 from http//www.goldratt.com/tocpmwhitepaper.pdfYoungman, K. J (2008). A guide to implementing TOC. Retrieved on 6/3/2008 fromhttp//www.dbrmfg.co.nz/Bottom%20Line%20Accounting%20for%20Change.htmLevinson, A. W. (2002). The theory of constraints and synchronous flow manufacturing. Levinson Productivity Systems P.C. retrieved on 6/3/2008 fromhttp//www.ct-yankee.com/lean/toc_sfm.html

Fruit Fly Introduction Essay Example for Free

Fruit Fly Introduction EssayThe purpose of this lab is to understand how to each one takings inherits its genotype and how its phenotype reflects it. Sex chromosomes determine the sex of the yield, and the autosomes consist of every(prenominal) the other chromosomes that determine phenotypic attributes. Dominant traits are the cistrons that are expressed, plot the recessive allele traits are masked by the dominant traits. We used Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly), mutating the female person fruit fly with a scalloped gene to change the phenotype of its offspring and apply males with genes showing wild-type. Placing WT males and SD females in the same vile, we provided the move an atmosphere to mate, giving us offspring with mixed genotypes and phenotypes. This experiment will reflect the breeding of fruit flies and how genes are present within adults as well as passed down through the offspring. Our four hypotheses related to rule of inheritance that was used to pass the gene. The mode of inheritance for the scalloped gene is autosomal dominant. The genotype of the female parent is homozygous dominant. The male parent genotype is homozygous recessive.From this possibility we expect all of the offspring to have a heterozygous genotype, and the offspring would all be scalloped. The mode of inheritance for the scalloped gene is autosomal recessive. The genotype of the female parent is homozygous recessive. The genotype of the male parent is homozygous dominant. From the supposal we can expect the offspring to have heterozygous genotypes, but the offsprings phenotype would be wild type. The mode of inheritance for the scalloped gene is sex-linked dominant. The genotype of the female is homozygous dominant.The genotype of the male parent is hemizygous recessive. From this hypothesis we can expect all the female offspring to be heterozygous and all the male offspring to be hemizygous dominant. Both male and female offspring would be scalloped.. Fina lly, the mode of inheritance for the scalloped gene is sex-linked recessive. The genotype of the female parent is homozygous recessive. The genotype of the male parent is hemizygous dominant. From this hypothesis we can expect all the females to have heterozygous genotypes and all the male offspring to have hemizygous recessive genotypes.In this prediction, all the male offspring would be scalloped, while the females would be wild type.. The hypothesis that stated the mode of inheritance for the scalloped gene is autosomal dominant, and the mode of inheritance for the scalloped gene is sex-linked dominant predicted that all of the offspring are scalloped. To set up the reciprocal cross, the mutant gene was given to the male rather than the female from the starting time experiment and the female received the wild-type. The first hypothesis stated was that the mode of inheritance for scalloped is autosomal dominant.In this hypothesis the female genotype was homozygous recessive while the males was homozygous dominant. The offspring from this cross had heterozygous genotypes and expressed the mutant phenotype. . The mode of inheritance for scalloped is autosomal recessive. In this cross, the male parent had a homozygous recessive genotype, while the female had a homozygous dominant genotype. The result of this was that all of the offspring had a heterozygous genotype and expressed the wild type phenotype. The mode of inheritance for scalloped is sex linked dominant.In this cross the female parent had a homozygous recessive genotype while the male had a hemizygous dominant genotype. The female offspring from this cross were heterozygous and expressed the mutant phenotype, while the male offspring had a hemizygous recessive genotype and expressed the wild type phenotype. The mode of inheritance for scalloped is sex linked recessive. In this cross, the female parent had a homozygous dominant genotype while the male parent had a hemizygous recessive genotype. The female offspring of this cross had a heterozygous genotype while the males had a hemizygous dominant genotype.All offspring expressed the wild type phenotype. Each of the Punnett squares are possible outcomes of offspring phenotypes based on the genotypes of the parents. By compare our results to that of the Punnett squares we will be able to determine, through process of elimination, whether or not the mutation is a dominant or recessive trait and if it appears through an autosomal or sex linked chromosome. Based on the phenotypes of the offspring, we can infer the identifications of the parental genotypes.

Evaluating How To Ensure Patient Safety Nursing Essay

Evaluating How To Ensure affected role role Safety Nursing EssayPATIENT SAFETYAccording to homo Health Organisation (2010) Patient gum elastic is the legal profession and parryance of adverse circumstances or injuries coming from wellness c atomic number 18 process. Accidents, errors ar common events that brush a font occur in the clinical argona. Safety arises from the interaction from different parts of the trunk it does not live in a person, department or device. Patient safety is a branch of wellness care quality.Patient safety could be defined as the prevention of errors and adverse effect associated with patient ofs in health care. Health care has become more complex and more effective with vaster use of medicines, treatment and more use of technologies also, patient safety is the prevention of adverse effects to patients and prevention of errors associated with health care. In every care given in that location is a certain degree of unsafe practice, wrong executi on, side effects of drugs, hazards d 1 by a faulty or substandard health check device used in the health system, homo errors or system errors (latent) failures (World Health Organization, 2002).Patient safety is a global discipline whereby to the highest degree 2.3% -16.6% adverse event rates pack been documented from acute care hospitals. 1.4 gazillion throng universe of dis get overwide have also been reported by the World Alliance for patient safety are suffering from acquired infections from hospitals and in the developed world 10% of patients admitted to modern medical hospitals acquire one or more infections.In Africa and Asia pacific region, patient safety is a very big issue of concern. In the developing countries the pretend of health care associated infection is 2-20times higher than in developed countries, sometimes the percentage of health care acquired infection canful exceed 25%. The countries rise of unsafe care is al leging (WHO, 2007, pp. 15).Nursing liter ature and standards of professional conduct elevating patient safety and standard care all told presuppose the importance of rectitude in care for practice. Ab step forward what excellence is and how it may be operationalised as a moral essential in patient safety discourse is not well interpreted. It may not be possible to effect to any one specific definition of the idea what excellence in health and nursing care area is, but only to give examples of distinct excellences of professional practice and professional lives for example exemplar of particular(a) caring, exceeding honesty, outstanding understanding and skill, laudable wisdom, uncommon patience and eminent integrity.RISK ASSESSMENTIt is the identification of attendant uncertainties in order to estimate the jeopardize in an organization IPCS (2004). jeopardize assessment is the inaugural constituent in endangerment of exposure analysis process which also includes perplexity of risk and communication of risk. Risk assessment refers to techniques and methods that apply to the judgment of hazards. Risk assessment starts with problem formulation which includes four additional steps as elaborated below(1)Identification of hazards(2)Characterization of hazards(3) sagaciousness exposure(4)Characterization of risk (IPCS, 2004).Identification of hazards entails recognizing the hazard and acting fast to prevent an incident from occurring. Characterization of hazards has to do with the drug, object or procedure that might cause the adverse effect. Assessment exposure involves how are patient expose to this hazards, how much danger is likely to occur, how long is the danger likely to occur, what measure of danger is appropriate for typifying health risk? Characterization of risk involves how does the assess exposure compare guidance value for the drug?The nurses on handicraft in this reason scenario did not act as harm absorbers by ensuring the safety of the young little girl in the ward by combinin g expertise, experience and training which is required from see nurses. They necessary psychic alertness or foresight to identify on time that the patient tourniquet was not receptive.National Patient Safety Agency (2008) has developed a mental preparedness training program which aims at enabling nurses to increase knowledge of determinant that raises the chance of patient safety incidents, boost their confidence to sustenance patient safety incident from happening and understanding risk-prone situations break off. Reason (2004) cultivated a method for analysing risks which was structured around the one-third-bucket model. According to the model, most patient safety incidents can be prevented if clinical rounds foresee error before any task, procedure or action is attempted. The assessment is divided into three parts, which are the self-bucket, context-bucket and the task-bucket. Relating these three-bucket vaticination approaches to the example scenario examined in this essay is detailed below.In the self-bucket, the registered nurse that collected the blood sample from the little girl had a low level of competence and experience because it is the calling of a medical laboratory scientist which she is not. She was not aware of the policies that governs the procedure and never took her time to cross-check what she was doing.In the context-buck the registered nurse on duty lacked team support from her colleagues. The four registered nurses on duty would have shared the patients in the ward to themselves in a ratio of 101 and the unfastened tourniquet would have been noticed by the staff nurse in charge of this young girl.In the Task-bucket the registered nurse that collected the blood sample was unfamiliar with(predicate) with the task so did not remember to unfasten the tourniquet. She would have asked for a medical laboratory scientist who has more experience in this procedure and it would have function reduced the reckon load for this staff n urse because the ward was busy and full.Reason (2004) noted that using foresight is a fundamental skill of an experienced registered nurse and for it to be more effective it must be practised. He goes on to say that healthcare professionals who needs to develop error wisdom, alertness and fast(a) reactions needs to apply it, should use the simple three-bucket model of error which might help them the foresight components that raises the chance of patient safety incidents. Training on risk assessment does not have to take place in classroom but can be cultivated in forming part of clinical handovers, or of daily training programmes involving for example, manual handling and lifting which was not done by the nurses on duty in this scenario.The training programme designed created to equip staff with prospective risk assessment abilities and a simple model needed for use in their everyday work. It aim is to help nurses to do something to prevent incidents, mitigate nurses knowledge of the factors that can be added to make patient safety incident occur, educating nurses by encouraging them to share their experiences of patient safety incidents, improving their knowledge of questioning situations.The program also help prepare staff nurses to undertake urgent risk assessments of risky situations by encouraging them to accept that errors can and will of all time occur and to be more at alert of safety gaps where they work, know how to check situations before starting a task and so increases chances to minimise and avoid errors and to note and anticipate problems and to prepare in advance to deal with them. Ask for more qualified help when necessary and to know what scrowns them from asking for help.THE SCENERIOMy patient case scenario happened in south south Nigeria, West Africa where a student nurse did her clinical practice. An eight year old girl who was admitted for the treatment for malaria had her arm amputated before discharge from the hospital. This young baby as I will call her was admitted into a 40 bedded busy ward with just three trained registered nurses on duty on to each one shift. She came in with severe pyrexia which was later brought down, but on the third day of her stay in the ward as a stable patient, the medical doctor on duty ordered for a malaria parasite blood investigation to see if there are more parasites before discharge.Fortunately the hospital management placard had enacted a law which governs the hospital and the laboratory in this hospital whereby blood samples are collected by the nurse on duty to the medical laboratory scientist because the hospital had only one medical laboratory scientist that runs the laboratory. The hospital management board tells the Federal Government that they have employed ten medical laboratory scientists (Ghost workers) but apparently employed just one.On that faithful morning one of the registered nurses on duty collected this patient blood for investigations but forgot to unfa sten the tied tourniquet from the patients arm. The incident took place with the morning nurses on duty while handing over to the afternoon nurses the unfasten tourniquet was still on the patient arm so the tourniquet was there for two old age without any of the nurses on duty noticing, the patient mum thought the on the girls arm was part of the treatment. 48 hours later a registered nurse on duty who went to give the patient bed bath saw it and by then blood supply to that arm has been cut off.An incident report was filled and submitted to investigated the incidence but selective information collected could not be worked on appropriately because the structure of the management board is pathologic because they have this attitude already that they needed not to waste their time on patient safety issue (Parker, 2001)SYSTEM FACTORSThroughout management of care, registered nurses are used extensively. Most health management officers prefers using advanced practice nurses in their prim ary care duties in changing patients positions and in community settings. Another important role for the registered nurse is that of case management while on duty. As a case manager you will have to manage care for a patient during the whole of the health care system to minimize breakdowns, contain cost and improve the quality of life.Nurses also help in a triage role, deciding the most suitable course of intervention and are often employed to render the most appropriate and cost-efficient care. This duty often involves moving a patient out of the hospital, a nursing home or with health service. The patients who are the consumers have different views towards managed care and their experiences. Some patients have good access, care givers they trust, various range of run and fair costs. Others have experienced access problem, refusal of treatment and limited coverage as seen in this case scenario. As patients become more informed, they began to fight for their rights to better health care services through legal system and reforms.Reducing workforce as seen in this essay, without comely reconstruction simply leaves fewer people to realize already inefficient and ineffective work.Unluckly this short sighted approach is taken by various companies, both in and outside health sector. The event is poor morale, patient discontent, low-quality outcome and loss of able staff. Kuokkanen et al., (2003) in their studies noted that job satisfaction, empowerment and organizational obligations are closely linked.Health care workers forthwith are facing a very different work environment. They mostly have seven to ten different jobs during a typical work vocation moderately than the three jobs or lesser held by former generation.Keys to successful reconstruction of the health system include strong leadership, support from the leaders from the top (resources, cultural, financial and time) positive thinkers, steadfastness and our being able to answer these few questions-What is our mission?-What standard do we want?-How do we need to go about our work?-What people do we want to work with?The history, political and socioeconomic factors of a country determines the characteristics of the health system, for example the hospital where this incidence occurred ,the organizational models are visionary and do not actually exist in a realistic pure state. Giving the Federal government a false send off of staff in each ward and having few staff is organisational failures that lead to the patient safety incidence. Due to the poor system normal daily nursing procedures were not carried out like taking of vital signs four hourly because if the normal routine procedure of taking vital signs was done the nurse that carried out the procedure would have seen the unfasten tourniquet that was tied on the little girls arm.During handing and taking over of the morning nurses to the afternoon nurses, the blood specimen collection which was a latest development would have be en reported to the head nurse on afternoon duty. The nurses on night duty also failed in their duties. If a proper night report was written and read out loudly by a night nurses in the presence of all the day duty nurses the succeeding(prenominal) day the error would have still be noted.Healthcare managers, strategy-makers and governors at the blunt-end-they decide on how care is delivered through strategies, financial control and directing the work of the healthcare professionals.At the blunt-end, latent conditions occur. A working environment is do that increases the chances that there will be an active failure at the sharp end. there are a whole lot of latent failures-all with the possibility to cause an adverse event like what we have now in this patient case scenario. The healthcare system in this scenario is overloaded such as overbooking admissions into the ward with less staff. Normally there is a combination of many small factors, each appearing not to be important when viewed alone.When latent failures occur in addition to only one active failure, such as forgetting to unfasten a used tourniquet by a registered nurse who is overtired because she has been working in an overcrowded and busy ward, the outcome is a recipe for an adverse event to occur.HUMAN FACTORS compassionate factor is the application of human knowledge, ability and limitations to the design of common systems of people, work tools and their environment to guarantee their influence, safety and ease of use. The above definition explains it further that the chores nurses perfrom,the equipment they are called to use, their work environment and the organizational procedures that moulds their activities may or may not be a good fit for their advantage and disadvantage. Poor outcome normally occurs when the sensory, behavioural and cognitive traits of providers are put together.Most nursing work processes have evolved as a result of personal or practice first choice rather than through a systematic method of constructing a system that gives rise to small errors and greater effectiveness. Far too often, care givers and administrators have fallen into a current situation trap carrying out procedures simply because they always had been done that way. Experts in human factor on the other hand, think at human abilities and weakness in the construction of systems, stressing the importance of avoiding believe in memory, carefulness and follow up intentions-areas where human acts of avoiding confidence. Processes can be made easy and standardized, leading to less confusion, gains more effectiveness and fewer errors.The area of human factors does not point solely on devices and technology. Human factor query came up during World War II as a result of showcasing equipment and controls that were not fitted to the visual and motor abilities of human users, decade after decade of human factors work has seen a broadening of the human accomplishment issues seen worthy of invest igation. Lately a number of human factor experts with interest in improving health care standard and safety spoke addressing a more inclusive range of sociotechnical system factors, including only patient, care givers, the duty performed, and group work, but also work environments or Microsystems. One of the lessons coming from a systems method is that meaningful improvements in safety and quality are likely to be reached by beholding to and correcting the mistakes among these organizational and management matters, and socioeconomic factors outside of the institution. Managing the systems confidence of care, as seen by confidence of care, is a big challenge faced by providers and their human factor partners.Human factor relevant to this case scenario is that there was an inadequate flow of information from the nurses during their handing over process. The nurses on each shift did not have the information they needed to appropriately care for the young girl. The (Joint Commission) 2 006 advices on the improvement of effective communication which is include a requirement for a standardized handing-off of communications. Other human factors that lead to the incident were fatigue, stress and interruptions.Although the nurse that carried out the procedure was not a medical laboratory scientist but she should have explained the procedure to the young girl or get an interpreter to interpret the procedure to the patients mother because she does not understand English. This effective communication before the procedure would have helped in great deal in preventing this accident because the mother caring for her daughter would have noticed the tourniquet still fastened on her daughters arm after the procedure was an error and would have drawn the attention of the nurse or any other nurse to unfasten it.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PRACTICEIncreasing the number of medical staffing in order to achieve compliance will help in minimizing patient safety incidence rather than lying. Although increasing the number of medical staff is not a criterion that error will be prevented completely in the practical world.Setting up assessment team amongst the nurses who will be dedicatedly positioned to centralised areas in the ward to assess acutely ill patients and strict monitoring while still on admission.No matter how bad the case in a hospital is, there must be a patient safety champion in each department or air division which should be recommended or nominated by the staff in the hospital.The hospital should use the information generated by its incident reporting system and organization-wide risk assessments to proactively improve patient care.

Technology and Social Issues in Africa

Technology and Social Issues in AfricaNigel McKelveyFor umpteen in the western world, the perception of Africa is one of starving nipperren and war disunite countries. But 21st hundred Africa is a continent that is attempting to dispel the emeritus imagery and is ready to compete with the rest of the world when it comes to embracing technology. The major conquest of the diligent phone industry has revolutionised how the population of Africa live, work, learn and communicate. Technology has changed industry in Africa, while natural resources atomic number 18 still beingness mined by international companies with no benefit to its people, there is now an opportunity for individuals to reap the rewards of this new revolution as the skills argon accessible and pitch allowed m any individuals to endow themselves and realise their potential. A technical hub in Nairobi, Kenya is a huge supremacy storey that commode be replicated anywhere end-to-end Africa because it is the peop le that argon the greatest resource and not the blood diamonds or crude oil that differents arouse been exploiting for decades. The hub has become so successful it has been dubbed Silicon Savanah. There are currently ontogeny a 5000-acre site to develop the Konzo Techno City, the first of its kind in Africa. It is attracting major global companies much(prenominal) as Samsung, B deficiencyberry and Huawei and when completed in 2025 ordain encounter 200,000 people working and living there. This is working proof that the Afri rouse people given the same opportunities as the western world can serve as major competitors in the global market place place.Africa, colonisation, poverty, meandering(a) phones, child labour, cocoa farming, Silicon Savanah.The media have been consistently severe in their portrayal of the African continent throughout the historic period. The Africa that the west perceive is one that Chavis,(1998) invokes as being as dark as the pervasive fear conjured up in the their minds. With constant images of famine and in straitened circumstances(p) children viewed on television screens by millions throughout the decades, it is difficult to invoke a reimaging of the country as the problem still inhabits to a lesser extent. Many African countries are still suffering and reports that another major famine is imminent, which could affect forty-nine million people across southern Africa (Robb, 2016).In the last cardinal years, there have been more wars in Africa than anywhere else on the planet (Arieff, 2016). The wars are ongoing and it is a struggle to establish economic and social maturement in countries that are at war and those surrounding them. In Northern Africa, there are nine countries at war or have intimate excitement, in central Africa there are three, in the east there are four while South Africa is also looking at unrest as support for the ANC is declining due to accusations of corruption (Timeslive, 2016).It is one of the m ajor problems that affects the progression of a vast continent, each country has such varied and unique characteristics to gallop the world, yet hindered by political relation corruption, conflict and poverty. In addition to this Birrell (2012) suggests there is a disconnect between what the western perception of Africa is and its fast-changing reality causing a lack of financial investment.Although these issues currently impede the economic growth of Africa and the social welfare of its citizens that live in the 54 countries that make up the continent, there is a change taking place where the digital age is being embraced and in doing so a new Africa is evolving. With a country that has exclusively 40% original energy supply and 20% having access to the Internet, there is a new wave of optimism coming from an impending digital and cultural revolution (Kanza, 2016).This paper will look at how the social issues have improved with the introduction of new technologies especially th e success of the mobile phone it is a technology that has united the continent. Subscriptions for mobile phones have now surpassed half a billion and it is expected that 54% of the continent will be connected by 2020 (GSMA, 2016). The largest market for mobile phones are Egypt, Nigeria and South Africa, with countries such as Kenya, who have a population of 45 million having subscriptions of 38 million (Mutiga, A., Flood, Z.,2016), which is more than 84% of the people in the country. The lack of infrastructure with unreliable and scarce fixed line telephone has contributed to the success of these devices and has given countries throughout the continent a freedom and new opportunities unheard of before.The core of colonisation in Africa since the 1870s by European countries has played a major part on how the continent is perceived today. Before the European Renaissance, Africans were building cities anterior than the Greeks or Romans and had developed writing skills in the form of scripts such as Demotic and Hieratic (Pheko, 2012). It was a continent that was always rich in resources such as oil, coal and diamonds, but few countries within the continent rarely profit from them only other countries and multinationals (BBC sensitives, 2012). Since the end of colonisation, little has changed in the way the many African countries have suffered, especially at the hands of their own governments who made deals with the devil. Multinational companies and foreign countries are still instrumental in the unethical substitution of billions of dollars to leaders and warlords to extract rich resources that they will greatly profit from while they allow the countries people to starve and be murdered. Any cyberspace that are generated are never invested back into the country or its people (Pear, 2014). A continent that was historically ahead of its time had become a mere shadow of its cause self. When the US President Franklin D. Roosevelt made a trip to Gambia in 1943, h e was shocked at the conditions its people were living in and was quoted sayingIts the most grievous thing I have ever seen in my life. The natives are five thousand years back of us. The British have been there for two carbon years for every dollar that the British have put into Gambia, they have taken out ten. Its just plain exploitation of those people.74 years later on countries are still being pilfered and little has changed in the way of financial investment in many countries that could greatly benefit from a fraction of the profits made by foreign countries or global corporations.With Africa having one of the teenest populations in the world, and an average age of 19.5 years (Worldometers, 2017), with 60% under 35 years old (Some, 2014) it is not surprising that it is a continent embracing the technical revolution. With new technology, brings an innovative era for millions regarding discipline relating to social aspects such as health, farming, business and pedagogics issues. The mobile phone market has liberal so much in Africa, that it will generate one tenth of the GNP by 2020. Mutiga, and Flood (2016) suggest that by the end of the decade there will be 657 million mobile broadband connections, contributing $300 billion to sub-Saharan Africas economy.It is ironic that the success of this new technology has created a child labour market in its own continent. The Democratic democracy of the Congo produces half the worlds supply of Cobalt a metal that can retain it magneticity at high temperatures, which is utilise in the manufacture of mobile phones, car batteries and computers (Bell, 2016). The 16 multinational brands that use this metal, including Apple, Microsoft and Sony are awake(predicate) that the mines that they are purchasing from use children as 7 years old, getting paid $1 a day for working in life threating conditions companies (Kelly, 2016). forbearance International have been investigating the practice and have traced the supp ly chain of the mined metal to companies such as Volkswagen, Daimler and Samsung. Having received the list of companies that were recorded as customers of the battery manufacturer that uses the metal, only one admitted that they were aware of the connection of the cobalt mines and the batteries. None of the companies could provide any details to verify where they were sourcing their battery carrefours (Amnesty International, 2016). The car companies knotty use the metal as a key component in the lithium-ion batteries, while the marketing focus is encouraging the potential buyer to consider purchasing their product because it is environmentally responsible thing to do. The take up for electric cars is expected to reach 17 million by 2030 which will invariably increase the demand for cobalt and the expectation is already pushing up the price of the metal (Desai, 2016). While the process of extracting cobalt has now become mainstream knowledge, it has not hindered the sales of smartp hones or electric cars nor will it as the public want to enjoy the benefits of having these good enoughs without wanting to know what was involved in its production.Child labour does not only run for to the mining industry the farming community also exploit children for labour and involved in the slave industry. Cocoa farming in countries like gold coast and the Ivory Coast contribute to a large part of its exports with over 60% of revenue generated alone from cocoa. Large international companies such as Hersheys, mar and Nestl use the farms to supply the demand for their chocolate bars. The farms are generating so much money for the countries, that their governments are distorting a blind eye to the amount of child slavery and kidnapping that is prevalent in these countries to keep up with demand and keep prices low for the large global customers. There are now estimated to be 1.8 million children working in dire conditions, where they are barely fed and working with dangerous pesticides and tools. In Ghana, 73.6% of rural children work in these types of farms with children as young as five have been reported to be working, with little chance of getting a decent education they whitethorn spend the rest of their lives been ill-used by these farmers (Mull and Kirhorn, 2005). With the chocolate industry, worth $100 billion (OKeefe, 2016), the demand for young workers will not stop. This can only be stopped through government intervention and the chocolate manufacturers paying a reasonable price for the cocoa they procure for a minimal cost at the expense of the countrys children. The governments behaviour in the past, only further damages the chance of fair working practices and pay. Three journalists who reported the pick upings of a government probe into the corruption in the cocoa export trade, were detained until they disc meetd the source of the findings, whilst another journalist went missing in 2004 when investigating the practices of the Ivory Coas t Government and the cocoa industry (Crawford, 2005). The cocoa farmer is at the mercy of the suppliers, who along with the corrupt governments dictate the price they receive for their crops, ensuring the farmer and the workers stay in un traind and poor because it suits their needs. The responsibility of the multinationals and the consumers of chocolate must take root where their conscience lie. The more consumers demand that the cocoa that produces the chocolate they so readily enjoy comes from ethically sourced farms, only then can there be whatever movement in how the farmer can relieve young workers from their farms.By using mobile technology as an information tool cocoa farmers can use mobile devices to promote essential market knowledge relating to crop and animal prices. They also can sign up to information centres where they can educate themselves almost best practice and the introduction of new techniques in different areas of farming that can help with increasing prod uctivity and profits, whilst informing about tight-laced pest control and correct disease management of their animals.In Senegal, a company called Mlouma offer farmers a service where they are informed on a timely basis of the best prices for selling and buying agricultural products (Omondi, 2014). This gives the farmers a market knowledge they never had before and enables them to get the best price for the product they work so hard to produce.A similar premise called Esoko began in Uganda and is now also successful in Tanzania and Kenya. It offers a central virtual market place, where the farmer is informed of market prices by SMS and part of their services includes a call centre where illiterate farmers can have access to the same information while also allowing farmers to put money aside or borrow money to buy necessary farming equipment (esoko, 2017). The cocoa industry may be corrupt, but by the farmers becoming more knowledgeable about the prices that are available, there may come a time where they get to demand a fair price for their goods based on what the information acquired through the established network creating using this technology.There are similar services throughout Africa that exist to empower individuals throughout the many areas of the production within the continent. Fishermen, fish processors and traders can avail of the service called EFMIS-ke. It is an electronic fish market information system that was launched in Kenya to combat the waste of post-harvest fish which was costing over 450,000 Euros annually. Data from fish landing sites and markets are continually uploaded onto a central database to be processed, which in turn is shared with users who can make informed decisions on where to sell or buy the fish depending on the going price (Nyabundi, 2017).While technology has allowed farmers and fishermen to gain a new perspective on how get the most from their product, there are still many social issues that blight the way. Strass, (2 016) suggests that Africa must overcome 6 major challenges to make way for a better future.Low Economic growth rate.This is due to the oil prices and exports falling and the richer economies suffering from the after-effects of the Arab spring Libya, Egypt and Tunisia. This is all about to change according to Barton (2016), who believes technology is one of the 3 trends that will ensure an economic and social change for Africa in the future. The first, by having the largest working population in the world by 2034. The second where the cities are becoming ever larger and becoming more productive and the third where technology will help ring road the infrastructure issues that are so prevalent within the continent.Lack of Industrial Development.Industrial development in Africa has not grown since the 1970s. Page (2014) believes it is a combine of bad luck and government policy that has left the continent 40 years behind the rest of the world. Bad luck, in terms of the economic crisis that occurred globally in the 1970s and 1980s, which brought about a macroeconomic strategy where governments and banks made policies to keep inflation to a minimum. When Africa came out of its economic recession, the rest of the worlds economy had grown with inflation and Africa could no longer compete. Bad policies were put in place to reduce imports and attempt to increase exports, but little understanding of the global market place meant they were doomed to fail.Poverty, hunger, poor education, ill health and violence.Although the situation is slowly improving, the living standard in comparison to the rest of the world seems bleak. The Democratic Republic of Congo Africas second largest country, is the poorest country in the world. Out of 20 of the countries in the world with the worst food and nutrition provisions, 19 of those are in Africa (Barton, 2016). unless through education and intervention from governments can there be any kind of social escalation in these countries. Urban slums.60% of people living in African cities are living in slum areas. As more of the surrounding land becomes urbanised, the larger the slums are ontogenesis. Programs are in place such as the UNHabitat who are working with governments to acquire lands, but the slums are growing faster, with expectations that by 2050 1.26 billion people will be living in cities only further exasperating the issue.CorruptionThe chair of the Transparency International Jos Ugaz saidCorruption creates and increases poverty and exclusion. While corrupt individuals with political power enjoy a lavish life, millions of Africans are deprived of their basic needs like food, health, education, housing, access to clean water and sanitation, (Veselinovic ,2016).Needs such as attending a doctor do not come easily for some citizens in many African countries. In Liberia, 7 out of 10 people claim to have paid bribes to access services such as healthcare or education. In Zimbabwe, a man who raped a 9-year-o ld year which resulted in her being infected with HIV was released in secret because he paid a bribe. It is estimated that nearly 75 million people in Sub Saharan Africa have paid a bribe to officials to stay away from court and for basic services that they badly need (Transparency.org, 2015).Global Trade coalitions.The African Growth and opportunity Act is a trade agreement established by President George Bush in 2000, with an aim to develop market access to the United States for countries with sub-Saharan African countries who adhere to certain human rights conditions and labour laws. This has afforded countries such as Tanzania, Kenya and Ethiopia to export $1billion in clothes to the United States with no tariffs (Schneidman, 2016). The worry for African countries with amendments to the Trans-Pacific Partnership was that other countries were attempting to get tariffs reduced and increase their exports to the United States. Since President Trump has withdrawn from the negotiati ons on the 23rd of January, the TTP may be dead in the water. What the growing concern now for the United States is that the Chinese are trading with them through the back door as they own many of the clothing factories that are trade to them (Thomas, 2017).In a continent where hardship and starvation is commonplace, it is difficult to see a light at the end of the tunnel from an outsiders perspective. Africa had never experienced any of the fortunes that North Europe gained from the industrial revolution (Armstrong, 2013), but it seems they do not want to bypass the digital revolution that is currently exploding throughout the continent, which to many may seem surprising that a continent so full of old traditions such as men kidnapping a bride in Sudan (Hearfield, 2014) or negotiating a price for a bride in Southern Africa (Ziddina, 2009). They are a highly superstitious group of countries where the existence of witches is still believed to be true (Radford, 2010) all of which is deemed rare by the western world, have surprisingly embraced technology with great ease. This may be because the technology that exists today and is being made available to them suits their needs. Technology is specify as the branch of knowledge that deals with the creation and use of technical means and their interrelation with life, society, and the environment. Technology has created so many opportunities in Africa and has allowed it to leap into the 21st century with the same enthusiasm the rest of the world has. TU Delft are a group of Global Initiative Scientists who are using high tech science to find solutions for problems people are facing in developing countries (TUDelft, 2017). They have just been given the green light to start on 7 new projects in Africa they includeAffordable housingUsing technology to develop new design methods for low-cost housing in Addis Ababa where 75% of its people live in slums.Building Adaptive CitiesWorking with local authorities and it citiz ens during the stages of urban development to look at solutions on how the city and its people serve each other in the future.Water Balance in the Zambezi River Basin.The Zambezi river basin is shared by 8 countries and is home to 2 of the worlds largest reservoirs. The construction of the 2 dams had a massive touch on on the basin and the studies will be carried out to predict floods and water levels which have affected its natural habitat and its people.Diagnosis of Tuberculosis and Detection of MalariaNew technology in mobile phones is being proposed in the detection of Tuberculosis which kills millions of people each year, while an optical device is being developed to come out the presence of malaria.Biogas Fuel Cell System in Rural AreasBiogas Fuel Cell System is where a fuel such as gas is reborn into electricity, a technology that IKEA is known for using in the United States (Bioenergy, 2017). TU is hoping to use this technology in remote areas (Holland, 2016).These new te chnologies can only be good for a continent that has suffered hardship throughout the last 400 years from the colonisers to the corrupt governments and leaders who live lavish lifestyles while they let their people suffer. The technologies are a plaster on a large wound that requires proper attention. The mobile phone and tablet technology however is an accessible one that everyone can benefit from and requires little or no technical ability to use. It is why it has been so successful in areas such as banking where in Kenya, Sudan and Gabon have 50% of adults using online banking. This is also true of online education tools that are so popular that the market is set to be worth $530million this year. These types of online tools are helping young people get an education they may otherwise not afford to or have access to without this technology. Health education is also another use of the mobile technology where information is disseminated to the masses at the click of a button, which was unthinkable in the 1980s (Ogunlesi, 2012). It is now an opportunity for Africa to shine as it once was and to lose its unfounded title that once was the dark continent.ReferencesChavis, R. (1998). 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Africas digital revolution a look at the technologies, trends and people driving it. Available https//www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/05/africa-s-digital-revolution-a-look-at-the-technologies-trends-and-people-driving-it. Last accessed 10th February 2017.GSMA (2016). NUMBER OF UNIQUE MOBILE SUBSCRIBERS IN AFRICA SURPASSES HALF A BILLION, FINDS NEW GSMA STUDY. Available http//www.gsma.com/newsroom/press-release/number-of-unique-mobile-subscribers-in-africa-surpasses-half-a-billion-finds-new-gsma-study/. Last accessed 17th February 2017.Pheko,M. (2012). Effects of colonialism on Africas past and present. Available https//www.pambazuka.org/global-south/effects-colonialism-africas-past-and-present. Last accessed 22nd February2017.BBC News (2012). Africa Debate exit Africa ever benefit f rom its natural resources?. Available http//www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-19926886. Last accessed 22nd February2017.Pear D.W. (2014). 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Theories of Interpersonal Perception and Self Presentation

Theories of Intersomebodyal Perception and Self PresentationChristian S. Bautista brotherly Psychology Inter personal RelationshipSolomon Asch (1946) found appear that when discipline is given about another person, some parts of that information are given to a greater extent importance than others. He called this central trait, which he state we are using to make decisions about the personality of the other person. In his warm-cold study, Asch tangle that traits ilk warm and cold when put in conjunction with traits like practical or determined produced a completely different overall impressions. However, S. Nauts et al argued that Aschs data (1946), do not provide clear leaven for a primacy of warmth effect the open-ended responses that were important to Aschs theorizing were not systematically analysed the trait-pair choice pass judgment seems unfit to test primacy of warmth and the gos of the ranking measure suggest that warmth was not central in determining participants imp ression.Stereotyping is an supposition we make about other people that maybe unconscious, save that influence our perception of others. Stereotypes can be split into deuce basic forms individual and group stereotypes. However, negative stereotypes can lead to group polarization and prejudice, Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) (cited in Payne, S. and Walker, J., 1996, p 191) classroom experiment illustrated this. Rosenthal and Jacobsons study became popular as it seemed to provide a powerful explanation for the low achievement of the so-called disfavor students. However, it was in any case criticized by educational psychologists on conceptual, methodological and statistical grounds. there were numerous attempts to replicate the study, consistently, besides about one and only(a) third of the studies attempting to demonstrate a self-fulfilling prophecy succeeded, and critics said that the phenomenon did not exist be take a crap the support was unreliable.TAQ 2 (752 words)Attribution possibility deals with how the well-disposed perceiver uses information to arrive at causal explanations for events. It examines what information is gathered and how it is combined to form a causal judgement (Fiske, Taylor, 1991). The aim of attribution is to understand how people interpret the words and actions of others and their own demeanour. An experiment by Thibaut and Riecken in 1955 shows how the subject perceives mingled with someone who is on a higher status and of a lower status. In the procedure, the subject interacted with 2 other persons one is of higher status than the subject and the other of a lower status. Both the person complied with the request of the subject, but when the subject was asked why each one had complied, the result was higher status compliance was put down as internal reason and external reason for the lowest status persons compliance. Furthermore, his evaluation from onward to afterward the compliance was favoured to the highest status pers on. This study shows twain antecedent and consequences of attributions for behaviour. In this study they adopted the ideas from Heider (1944) and Michotte (1963). It was assumed that the subject makes distinction and decides between internal and external cause for the other persons compliance on the basis of their perceived power. In attributing compliance to internal causes, positive attitudes are credited by the subject to the person. Attributing these qualities to a person has the consequence that the subject tends to like the person. In this experiment, essential element of attribution research is present. The research has hypotheses about the antecedents of causal attribution and the consequences of the subject making limited attributions (Kelley, H. and L. Michela, J.).We tend to perceive that the observed behaviour is due to the qualities of the person, dispositional attribution, rather than due to external force, plazaal attribution. The passenger who complains about the bus schedule is possible to be regarded as disagreeable rather than in a hurry. A respectful greeting to your manager may be offered because you like her or it may be only because of the superordinate-subordinate situation which exists between you. Heider (1958), who developed the model called the Nave Analysis of behaviour noted that people generally tend to perceive that human behaviour is some tracks caused, as it can be used by us in predicting the likelihood of this happening again, rather than being due to chance. We can make two attributions internal attribution, we attribute the behaviour of the person in their personality, character or attitude and external attribution, the inference that the person is behaving in a certain way because of the situation he or she may be in. Heider in any case noted that a persons behaviour particularly the first impression behaviour is so compelling that observers take it at face value and forget to take sufficient account of possible situ ational causes. When we make attribution, we must analyse the situation by going beyond the information given about the disposition of others and yourself as well as the environment and how it may be causing the person to behave in much(prenominal) a manner. However, order and predictability are the consequences in making inferences and inferences lead to behaviour. Once someone is given an initial label establish on his observed behaviour, the label sticks and becomes self-validating as that person will continue to behave in the way now expected of him.Another attribution theory is Kellys covariation model he developed a logical model for judging whether a particular action should be attributed to the person or stimulus. There are three types of causal information which influence our judgements consistency, consensus and distinctiveness. Consistency is when cause and effect regularly occur in concert for example you may notice that you felt irritable in the morning after a late ni ght out with little sleep, in fact irritability might occur every(prenominal) time you have a very late night. Others also reported the late-night irritability syndrome, this means you are not unique then the consensus is high. Distinctiveness is whether or not a particular behaviour occurred in the same way in the similar situation. According to Kruglanski (1977), people do not just naively come across situation but bring to each friendly situation a wide range of experiences and prior knowledge. This theory lacks of distinction between intentional and unintentional behaviour intentional behaviour occurs when there is a desire for an outcome. Covariance treats explanation as a cognitive activity, no accounting for the social functions of explanations such as clarifying something for another person (Malle, B.F., 2003).TAQ 3(165 words)TAQ 4(190 words)Self-presentational behaviour is any behaviour intended to create, modify, or maintain an impression of ourselves in the minds of oth ers. Whenever we attempt to lead people to think of us in a particular way, we are engaging in self-presentation.Self-presentation is very important aspect of our lives. How do we make others to believe that we possess various characteristic plays a huge role on our outcome in life. Self-presentation is a pervasive feature of our social life. However, self-presentational concerns also lead people to engage in behaviours that enhance their appearance but simultaneously jeopardize their own physical well-being and it even underlies suicidal behaviour.Self-monitoring allows human to measure their behavioural outcomes against a set of standards. Small children typically do not have the ability to self-monitor, it develops overtime. The ability to both understand and interiorize others behavioural expectations is a developmental social milestone that will occur in middle childhood. Both self-presentation and self-monitoring shaped me to the person I am today. I was able to convince peop le my wife my friends and my colleagues that I am worthy of their love, their friendship, their trust and their respect.TAQ 5(156 words)There are many factors involved, such as proximity, similarity, and physical attractiveness in the formation of relationships. It was found out that the friendliest person were those who live near on another. Those who play together check-out procedure together, in other words those who share similar interest in leisure activities form relationship. People of the same race, gender, age, and social background are likely to form a relationship. Person who are either similar birds of the same feather flocks together or that opposites attract forms a relationship. Physical attractiveness is also an important factor in formation of relationship, when we first meet someone their physical appearance is the first thing that will strike us before anything else.Jades date didnt lock out for her because as I have said above, her date didnt have any of the fa ctors. He faked his photo, his description and his job so Jade and his date had nothing in super C basically.TAQ 6(235 words)The main assumption of the social exchange theory (SET) is that individuals yield to maximise their recompenses affection and attention and reduce their costs time and effort. SET helps us understand the cost and rewards of relationships and it helps us predict how to keep and sustain relationships. However, it also has some weaknesses, SET neglects culture context. SET is based on a reward concept but not all cultures seek for a reward in a relationship. SET makes people seems individualistic and a reward seeking.Equity theory extends the SET, it takes into account that rewards need to be proportionate, this is based in the assumption that people expect that a relationship to be fair. People will pure tone satisfied if what they put into the relationship is comparable with what they get out of it. Aspects of beauteousness theory were unable to predict wh ether a relationship will be maintained or break down.According to Balance theory we tend to be friends or to choose friends those people who help us maintain our balance view of the world. One simple advantage is that it recognizes that people sometimes notice contradictory cognitions and that this inconsistency can lead to attitude change. It predicts how people will react to imbalanced and balanced situations. However, one consistent problem is that the predictions dont work very well. Balance theory does not make any prediction about how imbalanced will be resolved.TAQ 7(110 words)Mechanical failure is when two suitable people of goodwill and good nature grow apart, where communication may be poor or interactions go badly is the most common cause of relationship breakdown. Long term relationships often fail due to lack of common activities, as well as individual hobbies, interest and friends. If both partners do not grow equally one partner might feel that they are carrying the load. In Scenario 2 the youngest child is now completing his GCSE, couples shares obligation in rearing their children and this is their common interest. Since their younger son is becoming less of their common interest, it can become a cause of the problem.TAQ 8(219 words)Stages of Dissolution(Ducks variety Model)Stage IThe Intrapsychic phaseThinking about relationship in private, beginning to consider there is a problem in the relationship.Stage IIThe Dyadic phaseThe dissatisfaction is discussed. This is when the troubled partner confronts the other and tries to correct these problems.Stage IIIThe Social phaseAt this point the decision is made by one or both partners to leave the relationship. The breakdown is made public.Stage IVThe Grave Dressing phaseA post-relationship view of the breakup is completed both of the partners go through self-justification protecting self-esteem and rebuilding life towards new relationships.In 2006 Duck and Rollie added a fifth stage, Resurrect ion phase, when individual appraise the relationship and attempting to re-instigate the relationship again.One of the strength of this model is that it gives some insight into possible techniques that can be used so that the relationship can be repaired. It also has face validity as it is an account of relationship breakdown that we can relate to our own and others experiencesBrehm and Kassin (1996) sees the limitation of this study in that the women are more likely to stress unhappiness and incompatibility as reasons for breakup while men blame lack of sex suggesting gender differences that the model does not consider.TAQ 9(93 words)Love relationships are one of the greatest sources of happiness and meaning for every human being. Even the strongest relationships get off track sometimes because of the stresses of daily living, and couple expectations. The HEAL (Hear-Empathize-Act-Love) technique to repair damaged relationships by replacing defensive self-protection with compassion ate presence and loving connection (Greenberg, M., 2013).Hear to listen to your partner, stay present and be there.Empathize allow your partners experience deeply affect you, share the feelings.Act address the concerns and show willingness to change.Love feel and express unconditional love.ReferencesAsch, (1946) as cited in https//books.google.co.uk/books?id=U7oeILtwkxoCprintsec=frontcoversource=gbs_ge_summary_rcad=0v=onepageqf=false witness last accessed 22 January 2015Brehm and Kassin (1996) as cited in DLcentre workbook Module 6 Social Interaction Level 3.Cowan Curtis, 1994 as cited in http//www.understandingprejudice.org/apa/english/page9.htmDate last accessed 26 Feb 2015Cozzarelli, Wilkinson, Tagler, 2001 as cited in http//www.understandingprejudice.org/apa/english/page9.htmDate last accessed 26 Feb 2015Eysenc, M. (2002). simply Psychology. Online. 2nd Edition.East Sussex Psychology Press. Accessed 22 January 2015.Available athttps//books.google.co.uk/books?id=U7oeILtwkx oCprintsec=frontcoversource=gbs_ge_summary_rcad=0v=onepageqf=falseGreenberg, M., 2013. Four Steps to Relationship Repair With The H-E-A-L Technique. online.Available at https//www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-mindful-self-express/201304/four-steps-relationship-repair-the-h-e-l-techniqueAccessed 12 February 2015Heider (1944) as cited in http//www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/attribution_theory_and_research.pdfKelley, H. and L. Michela, J. Attribution Theory and Research. online.Available at http//www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/attribution_theory_and_research.pdfAccessed 19 March 2015Kruglanski, 1977 as cited in DLCentre Ltd., 2009/11 Module 6. Social Interaction level 3Lerner, 1980 Montada Lerner, 1998 as cited in http//www.understandingprejudice.org/apa/english/page9.htmDate last accessed 26 Feb 2015Malle, B.F., 2003. Attributions as Behavior Explanations Toward a New Theory. Online.Available at http//cogprints.org/3314/1/Explanation_theory_0 3.pdfAccessed 09 February 2015Michotte(1963) as cited in http//www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/attribution_theory_and_research.pdfPayne, S and Walker, J. (1996). Psychology for Nurses and the Caring Profession. Philadelphia Open University Press.Rosenberg et al, (1968) as cited in https//books.google.co.uk/books?id=U7oeILtwkxoCprintsec=frontcoversource=gbs_ge_summary_rcad=0v=onepageqf=falseDate last accessed 22 January 2015Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) as cited in Payne, S and Walker, J. (1996). Psychology for Nurses and the Caring Profession.S. Nauts et al. Forming Impressions of Personality. online.Available at http//selfregulationlab.nl/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/Nauts-et-al-2014-Asch.pdfAccessed 25 February 2015Tagler, 2001 Schuller, Smith, Olson, 1994 as cited in http//www.understandingprejudice.org/apa/english/page9.htmDate last accessed 26 Feb 2015Thibaut Riecken (1955) as cited in http//www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/attribution_the ory_and_research.pdf

Through A Narrow Chink: An Ethical Dilemma :: essays research papers

Through A Narrow Chink An Ethical Dilemma     In 1951 Carl Djerassi, with the Mexican pharmaceutic company Syntex,developed the first oral contraceptive by synthesizing and altering the naturalhormone Progesterone into a superpotent, highly effective oral progestationalhormone called "norethindrone".     Admittedly, the dynamics and importance of this arrest were astounding,since before this the only means of contraception was abortion, and even thatwas non legalized at the time.     The race to produce this synthetic substance agent was highly competitive, beingsought after by many pharmaceuticals throughout the world, and for a smallfledgling company in Mexico of all places to find it first only added to theexcitement of the achievement.     Yet aside from all this excitement and competitive fervor somethinggreat and disturbing was being bypassed. Science, in my view had through with(p) som ethinggreat without looking into the possibilities of where this would lead.     I believe Djerassi, similar to most scientists of his day, was soentranced by the excitement of synthesizing his product and achieving his goalthat he did not apprehension to think of the ramifications of his accomplishment. Theethical dilemma was not explored before hand, and this to me is the greattragedy of most scientific discovery, since I firmly believe each scientist isresponsible for that which he creates.Djerassi does confront a few questions of ethics and morality after thefact.     On page 61, in chapter 6, he reflects on the argument of the use of poorMexican and Puertorrican women for preliminary experiments. Is this justanother manifestation of exploitation of the poor?     Djerassi says absolutely not.     Yes, the poor our the initial guinea pigs for research but this is nodifferent from what dentists, barbe rs, and schoolboyish surgeons do. All of thesegroups use the poor to hone their skills, not because of the poor womensignorance but because middle class, suburbanite, white women are unlikely tovolunteer their services for the sake of science.     My important problem with this is that he claims they will not "volunteer"their services. Of course not, they are aware of the possible detrimentaleffects of such experimentation. This is obviously because they are likelymore highly educated the poor Hispanic women. Poverty often precludes a lackof good schooling and education. Thus the awareness of such a group toscientific studies will most likely be much lower. They probably knew nothingof scientific research at all, let alone how to read a consent form that leavesthem without legal recourse.     Djerassi mentions this as well, the idea that he can not offer themconsent forms because they cant read.     That seems p reposterous to me     If he can not inform his patients of the possible side effects then what

The Struggle in George Orwells Nineteen Eighty-Four (1984) :: Nineteen Eighty-Four 1984 Essays

The Struggle in  Nineteen Eighty-four  (1984)   In a world controlled by a higher power, constantly living in fear of doing or saying nearthing wrong, thoughts can be incriminating. Even worse, any unpure thoughts may make you disappear. Constantly being watched, and observed without knowing. A telescreen watching every(prenominal) facial expression and recording any abnormal body language and movement everywhere you go. Even in your home there is no escape. You be unable to get away or turn off the power of the Telescreen and Big Brother. This novel is of a mans struggle against a totalitarian brass that controls the ideas and thoughts of its citizens.In the novel 1984 by George Orwell the governing used advanced mind reading techniques to discover the thoughts of the people and punish those who show signs of rebellion against the government. The novel is supposed to be a prophetic story, however, it was somewhat wrong in predicting the date when this gover nment would rein. Although some themes described in the book are now realities, some are not going to happen for some time to come and this is why this novel continues to be overwhelming to us today.Perhaps Orwells purpose for make-up 1984 was to express his feelings of how the governments would come to control everything and anything they wished to do. It is also possible that he wanted to tell of how mind control and torture techniques could be used to make an private or an entire nation do what the government wanted. This story shows the danger of a world in which the government has too much control.  The novel shows how the government controls its people, eliminating their individuality and the essence of everything that makes a human a human.And if all others accepted the lie which the Party imposed-if all records told the same tale-then the lie passed into history and became truth. Who controls the retiring(a) ran the Party slogan, controls the upcoming who controls th e present controls the past. (Page 37)Though this society is efficient, it means little since the people cannot enjoy freedom and therefore have no rights. This quote emphasizes how if you dont recall anything about the past you will be easily controlled by the government and you will no longer have any concrete evidence.In this novel, Orwell used the image of a man who stood in a shadow that covered his face.